As shown in the following figure, carbon dioxide circulates inside the core, absorbs the heat from the fuel parts, and reaches 650 C. reactor's operating temperature. Thus, a capacity factor of 1.0 refers to a reactor that operates at full power 24 hours a day over the entire period of time being considered. NaK is liquid at room temperature. All These reactors are homogeneous, pool type, sodium coolant with outlet temperature of 823 K (550 . arc different; for example, it has a noncirculating fuel, and the heat is removed by cooling with helium under pressure . Another advantage of liquid cooling is that it is more efficient in removing excess heat. 0000007220 00000 n It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast reactors; lead-bismuth cooled (LBC) ship reactor operation experience and LBC fast power reactor development; Although tin today is not used as a coolant for working reactors because it builds a crust,[7] it can be a useful additional or replacement coolant at nuclear disasters or loss-of-coolant accidents. The Sodium Reactor Experiment was an experimental sodium-cooled graphite-moderated nuclear reactor (A Sodium-Graphite Reactor, or SGR) sited in a section of the Santa Susana Field Laboratory then operated by the Atomics International division of North American Aviation. Large pressurized water reactors, on the other hand, have a significant cost disadvantage compared to gas cooled reactors; their pressure vessels are more highly contaminated and normally will need to be cut up before being transported for disposal. In the PWR, water at high pressure and temperature removes heat from the core and is transported to a steam generator. The hot helium can be used directly as the working fluid in a high-temperature gas turbine, or its heat can be utilized to generate steam for a water cycle. However, the last one in Britain was shut down in 2015. This process is repeated for each element that requires removal. In 2000 the High Temperature Reactor-10 (HTR-10), a Chinese reactor based on the German pebble-bed design, began operating at a nominal steady-state power level of 10 megawatts. 0000003498 00000 n In addition, unlike conventional PWRs and BWRs (boiling water reactors), some gas cooled reactor designs have the ability to be refueled during the full-power performance, which presents some operational advantage and higher plant availability. Another advantage of these types of reactors is that they are small and can operate at high temperatures. 0000005339 00000 n This publication presents a survey of worldwide experience gained with fast breeder reactor design, development and operation. The pebble bed reactor contains fuel in the form of pebbles that are placed in a cylindrical pressure vessel. The liquid sodium gets cooled in the heat exchanger and goes back to the reactor vessel. The AGR design kept the graphite moderator and carbon dioxide coolant of the Magnox. The fuel assembly of a CANDU reactor, which consists of a bundle of short zirconium alloy-clad tubes containing natural uranium dioxide pellets, can be changed while the system is running. See Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. It then flows to the heat exchangers located outside of the pressure vessel of the reactor concrete. 2016. Sodium-cooled fast reactors are described briefly in Chapter 3.Some more details are discussed below [15-18]. thermal conductivity and heat capacity creates a large thermal inertia xb```a``c`e`~ @V ;Z{U_{QUg&%n\r=oI5FYsmoCIc~GK=?d4@) Hnb> However, because of disadvantages including high toxicity, high vapor pressure even at room temperature, low boiling point producing noxious fumes when heated, relatively low thermal conductivity,[2] and a high[3] neutron cross-section, it has fallen out of favor. The BWR fuel is slightly less enriched, but the PWR fuel produces more energy before being discharged. This change led to a greater burnup of 18,000 MW-days per fuel tonne, requiring less regular refueling. neutrons, an SFR uses fast neutrons, which are neutrons that have not This energy is removed by natural circulation of the water in the storage pool. [1] E. Xue, EBR-I used a liquid metal alloy, NaK, for cooling. 0000004408 00000 n A schematic diagram of the advanced gas cooled reactor is illustrated below. A BWR operates on the principle of a direct power cycle. The removed fuel stored in the storage pool not only is highly radioactive but also continues to produce energy (referred to as decay heat). Liquid metal cooled reactors were studied by Pratt & Whitney for use in nuclear aircraft as part of the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion program.[9]. Safety features include a long thermal response time, a large margin to coolant boiling, a primary cooling system that operates near atmospheric pressure, and an intermediate sodium system between the radioactive sodium in the primary system and the water and steam in the power plant. It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast reactors; lead-bismuth cooled (LBC) ship reactor operation experience and LBC fast power reactor development; 43 24 In all of these industries, brine chillers offer several advantages over other cooling methods, including high efficiency, reliability, and low cost. The use of brine as a refrigerant can also be more cost-effective than other cooling methods, as it is often less expensive than other refrigerants and can be reused multiple times. It was commissioned in 1957, but it had leaks in its superheaters, which were bypassed. water. The first reactor of this type was Calder Hall in 1956, which was often considered as the first commercial-scale electricity-producing reactor worldwide. Since both claddings react with water, they may be stored in a spent fuel pool only shortly. xref ANL-AFCI-238, August 2008. In July 1959, the Sodium Reactor Experiment suffered a serious incident involving the partial melting of 13 of 43 fuel elements and a significant release of radioactive gases. Despite sodium's low specific heat (as compared to water), this enables the absorption of significant heat in the liquid phase, while maintaining large safety margins. "Aging The characteristics and design features of these reactors differ significantly from those of LWRs, stemming from the properties of fast neutrons and the chemical nature of liquid sodium. In principle it could be accomplished in two weeks, but in practice nuclear power plants undergo maintenance during reload, which often takes considerably more timeup to several months. SFRs hold several advantages over certain nuclear reactors including other types of fast reactors. On the other hand, because the BWR operates at lower pressure, its pressure vessel is thinner than the pressure vessel of a PWR. The reactor produced a total of 37 GW-h of electricity. Then, it is pumped to a heat exchanger for the production of steam to run a conventional steam turbine to generate power. Will be followed by BN-1200M as a model for export. The control rods of a typical PWR are inserted from the top (through the reactor head), whereas those of a BWR are inserted from the bottom. as it allows for a high power density with a low coolant volume. View chapter Purchase book Breeder Reactors Raymond L. Murray, in Nuclear Energy (Fourth Edition), 1993 13.3 The Fast Breeder Reactor Fast reactors have been operated successfully throughout the world. There were generally two types of first-generation GCRs: Magnox is a type of nuclear gas cooled reactor designed to work with natural uranium with graphite as the moderator, and CO2 as the coolant. Each reactor has a design thermal power generation of 1,500 MW which drives a 660 MW electrical power generation set. In fact, the steam generators of a PWRthere are typically four of them in a big plantare larger than the reactor vessel itself. Generation IV nuclear reactor concepts that could mitigate some of the There are two principal types of HTGRs, including Pebble Bed Reactors (PBRs) and Prismatic Block Reactors (PMRs). Telephone: +43 (1) 2600-0, Facsimile +43 (1) 2600-7, 19982023 IAEA, All rights reserved. Some designs immerse the entire core and heat exchangers into a pool of coolant, virtually eliminating the risk that inner-loop cooling will be lost. other than typesetting and referencing guidelines. A typical schematic is displayed in Fig. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Linquipis a Professional Network for Equipment manufacturers, industrial customers, and service providers, Copyright 2022 Linquip Company. All of them are advanced carbon-dioxide gas cooled reactors in the UK that will be phased out by the mid-2020s. The most promising type of breeder reactor is the Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR), which operates by using liquid sodium as its coolant, and breeds plutonium from uranium-238. The reactor core in all such systems is a tightly packed bundle of fuel in steel cladding through which the sodium coolant flows to extract the heat. However, the higher Cr and Al concentrations in ferritic alloys could be problematic because of severe embrittlement . <<47A499A70D1B7541B2195AAD6E7A23F4>]>> process requires additional recycling processes to ensure that the fuel Terms of Use, Governmental, legal and regulatory framework, Security of nuclear and other radioactive material, Radioactive waste and spent fuel management, Zoonotic Disease Integrated Action (ZODIAC), International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO), IAEA Marie Sklodowska-Curie Fellowship Programme, Catalogue of review missions and advisory services, Peer review and advisory services calendar, Global Nuclear Safety and Security Network (GNSSN), International Nuclear Information System (INIS), Advanced Reactors Information System (ARIS), Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System (iNFCIS), Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Information System (SRIS), Offices Reporting to the Director General, Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors: Experience in Design and Operation. (VT-1 reactors in K-27; BM-40A and OK-550 reactors in others). This allows for the coolant to operate at higher temperatures and lower pressures than current reactorsimproving the efficiency and safety of the system. With the three percent market share, all are installed in the United Kingdom. The high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR), as mentioned above in Fuel types, is fueled by a mixture of graphite and fuel-bearing microspheres. 4. IV Nuclear Reactors," Physics 241, Stanford University, Winter Ease of control. This means that the pressure of nitrogen cannot be maintained. Thanks to its unique advantages of high power-to-mass ratio, shallow reactivity poisoning and quick response to reactivity control , a liquid metal-cooled space nuclear reactor, which adopts a fast neutron spectrum reactor core cooled by liquid metal or liquid metal alloys, is the preferred solution to provide the necessary high-power supply . nuclear reactor. [1] The Generation IV International Forum [2] C. Jones, Each type of SMR has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of reactor technology depends on various factors, including the intended use, the site characteristics, and the regulatory requirements. The result of this policy is the Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactora line of natural uranium-fueled reactors moderated and cooled by heavy water. It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast reactors; leadbismuth cooled (LBC) ship reactor operation experience and LBC fast power reactor development; treatment and disposal of spent sodium; decontamination after shutdown of the typical loop type LMFR; and an analysis of advantages and disadvantages of sodium as a coolant, giving due consideration to advances in the technology and design of sodium components. Much larger size and weight of reactor per unit power. Many Generation IV reactors studied are liquid metal cooled: Bunker, Merle E. "Early Reactors From Fermis Water Boiler to Novel Power Prototypes" a chapter in, liquid metal fast breeder reactors (LMFBRs), http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?00416628.pdf, "Neutron Scattering Lengths and cross sections", Atmospheric corrosion of tin and tin alloy, Ukraine advises Japan to use tin to cool Fukushima reactor, "40 Curious Nuclear Energy Facts You Should Know", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor&oldid=1134133261, This page was last edited on 17 January 2023, at 04:17. The superheated water vapour is then used as the working fluid to turn the steam turbine. The core is open on one side, so the elements of fuel can be added or eliminated while the reactor is still running. When it does absorb a neutron it produces sodium-24, which has a half-life of 15 hours and decays to stable isotope magnesium-24. Most LMRs are breeders or are capable of breeding, which is to say that they all produce more fissile material than they consume. which allows the use of fast neutrons. sustainability and efficiency. The once-through boiler works at pressures above the critical water point pressure. Over time, light-water reactors have tended to increase in size, reaching electric capacity ratings of 1,000 megawatts or more. At present, gas cooled reactors account for about three percent of all reactors in commercial operations around the world. It has been tested by Ukrainian researchers and was proposed to convert the boiling water reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster into liquid tin cooled reactors.[8]. Summary: This publication presents a survey of worldwide experience gained with fast breeder reactor design, development and operation. While fuel choices are relatively limited, there are numerous fused salts to . Temperature Reactors (V/HTR), and Supercritical-Water-cooled Reactors generator or cause a hydrogen explosion. Designs," Institut de Radioprotection et de Sret This is the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, utilizing graphite as the neutron moderator and CO2 as coolant. Most LMRs are fueled with uranium dioxide or mixed uranium-plutonium dioxides. A sodium leak could lead to the production of toxic While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after, This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the ", "Fast Neutron Reactors | FBR - World Nuclear Association", "GE Hitachi, TerraPower Team on Nuclear-Storage Hybrid SMR", "PacifiCorp, TerraPower Evaluating Deployment of Up to Five Additional Natrium Advanced Reactors", "Bill Gates' nuclear venture plans reactor to complement solar, wind power boom", Unusual occurrences during LMFR operation, "Neutronic Assessment of Transmutation Target Compositions in Heterogeneous Sodium Fast Reactor Geometries", "Bill Gates's next-gen nuclear plant packs in grid-scale energy storage", "China Fast Reactor 600 to be Launched in 2023, 2026 Draws International Attention | Tech Times", "Three premiers plan to fight climate change by investing in small nuclear reactors", Idaho National Laboratory Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor Fact Sheet, Generation IV International Forum SFR website, "Meet the Man Who Could End Global Warming", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor&oldid=1135604703. The nuclear fuel cycle employs a full actinide recycle with two major options: One is an intermediate-size (150600MWe) sodium-cooled reactor with uranium-plutonium-minor-actinide-zirconium metal alloy fuel, supported by a fuel cycle based on pyrometallurgical reprocessing in facilities integrated with the reactor. endstream endobj 44 0 obj<> endobj 45 0 obj<>/Encoding<>>>>> endobj 46 0 obj<> endobj 47 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB]>> endobj 48 0 obj<>stream The name is due to the magnesium-aluminum alloy utilized to clad the fuel rods in the reactor. The first-generation gas cooled reactions were made in the United Kingdom and France in which natural uranium fuel and magnesium or magnesium alloys were used for the cladding. 2cm thick). trailer 14. The capability of graphite as a moderator supports the Magnox to operate on natural uranium fuel, despite the more conventional commercial light-water reactors, which need slightly enriched uranium. Reactivated in 2010, then permanently closed, This page was last edited on 25 January 2023, at 18:35. The high temperatures reached by the coolant (the Phnix reactor outlet temperature was 560 C) permit a higher thermodynamic efficiency than in water cooled reactors. A few examples include organic liquid-cooled and liquid-moderated reactors that can operate like a pressurized-water reactor but without requiring pressures in the primary circuit to be as high as those in the traditional PWR; sodium-cooled graphite-moderated reactors; and heavy-water reactors built in a pressure-vessel design. In the United States, which does not reprocess, storage pools have continued to receive spent fuel, and some of the pools are filling up. Graphite is used as the moderator in this reactor. Furthermore, the BWR vessels internal system is more complex, since it includes internal recirculation pumps and complex steam separation and drying equipment that are not found in a PWR design. project by the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission Advantages: 1. Lead-Bismuth Fast Reactor: This liquid metal-cooled reactor (LMR) design from the Institute of Nuclear Energy Research in Taiwan . Both types were designed and used in their countries of origin to create weapons-grade plutonium, but at the cost of the main interruption to their use for power production despite the preparation of online refueling. The fact that the sodium is not pressurized implies that a much thinner reactor vessel can be used (e.g. Water is a much stronger neutron moderator because the hydrogen atoms found in water are much lighter than metal atoms, and therefore neutrons lose more energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms. 0000000776 00000 n Key to Nuclear's Future or an Element of Doubt, The For example in 2022, in the USA, TerraPower (using its Traveling Wave technology[2]) is planning to build its own reactors along with molten salt energy storage[3] in partnership with GEHitachi's PRISM integral fast reactor design, under the Natrium[4] appellation in Kemmerer, Wyoming.[5][6]. The water is then applied in the conventional steam cycle. Magnesium oxide has an order of magnitude lower probability of interacting with neutrons (thermal and fast) than elements such as iron. They were made the same as those of a coal-fired power plant, providing the same design of applied turbines and generation facilities. Because of its large heat storage capacity, it was expected to be able to produce surge power of 500 MWe for 5+ hours, beyond its continuous power of 345 MWe. [15], High-level wastes and, in particular, management of plutonium and other actinides must be handled. work is the author's own and that Stanford University provided no input The operating temperature must not exceed the fuel's melting temperature. sodium-based systems do not serve as neutron moderators, unlike water, century. 0000001132 00000 n Sodium reacts violently with water and air. Containment systems and major nuclear accidents, From production reactors to commercial power reactors. Options available to nuclear plant operators are to store the spent fuel more densely than originally planned, to build new pools, or to store the oldest in aboveground silos (dry storage) locally on site. 0000009076 00000 n however, next generation nuclear reactors (i.e., Generation IV) have the The primary loop contains liquid sodium which is circulated through the fuel core and it absorbs the heat liberated by the fission of fuel. The BN-350 and U.S. EBR-II nuclear power plants were sodium cooled. [10] The reactor was repaired and returned to service in September 1960 and ended operation in 1964. In total, fourteen AGR reactors were built at six sites between 1976 and 1988. Therefore the same design of turbo-generator could be applied. other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the This makes them attractive for improving power output, cost effectiveness, and fuel efficiency in nuclear power plants. In both variants, the coolant consists of helium pressurized to approximately 100 bars, or roughly 100 standard atmospheres. The CO2 coolant circulates in the core, which reaches a temperature of 640 C and a pressure of about 40 bar. Sodium at high temperatures ignites in contact with oxygen. xNy`|d>gSJ,'`*"7f7MH3q)@ Ug Cooling specific components. The use of liquid metal has many advantages because the reactor need not to be kept under pressure and they allow high power density than the conventional coolant. [citation needed] Neutron activation of sodium also causes these liquids to become intensely radioactive during operation, though the half-life is short and therefore their radioactivity does not pose an additional disposal concern. Home > Uncategorized > Gas Cooled Reactor. The reactor was expected be sited underground and have gravity-inserted control rods. The pool type seems to have some safety advantage in that the large volume of primary sodium heats up only slowly even if no power is extracted; thus, the reactor is effectively isolated from upsets in the balance of the plant. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is a type of high-temperature gas cooled reactors (HTGRs) that, in concept, can reach high outlet temperatures, up to 1000 C. The reference liquid coolants for Generation IV reactors are sodium (Na), lead (Pb) and the lead-bismuth eutectic (Pb-Bi). suffered from corrosion and sodium leaks that resulted in runaway In Magnox, the neutrons are moderated in great graphite blocks. For example, water cooled reactors have a possible maximum temperature limit of around 350C, which allows a conversion efficiency (the ratio of output electricity to heat) of about 3234%. 0000016376 00000 n The AGR prototype was practiced in 1962 at Windscale, but the first commercial AGR did not start working until 1976. This allows the system to transfer more heat over greater distances. The AGR was the developed form of the Magnox reactor, the first-generation reactor design in the UK. completely thermalized, to convert U-238 into plutonium. What are the advantages and disadvantages of laser welding? A liquid metal cooled reactor (LMCR) is an advanced type of nuclear reactor that uses a liquid metal as the primary coolant. Furthermore, because the BWRs power density is somewhat lower than that of the PWR, the pressure vessel must be built to a larger diameter for the same reactor power. Disadvantages include difficulties associated with inspection and repair of a reactor immersed in opaque molten metal, and depending on the choice of metal, fire hazard risk (for alkali metals ), corrosion and/or production of radioactive activation products may be an issue. The calandria is pierced by pressure tubes made of zirconium alloy in which the natural uranium fuel is placed and through which heavy water coolant is circulated. With an increase in pressure in the Rankine cycle, the saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure increases. A Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) is a type of By comparison, the liquid temperature range of water (between ice and gas) is just 100K at normal, sea-level atmospheric pressure conditions. In 2020 Natrium received an $80M grant from the US Department of Energy for development of its SFR. There are two competitive designs of this reactor type: (1) a German pebble bed system that uses spherical fuel elements, nominally 60 mm (2.5 inches) in diameter, containing a graphite-and-fuel mixture coated in a graphite shell; and (2) an American version in which the fuel is loaded into precisely located graphite hexagonal prisms that interlock to create the core of the vessel. nuclear reactor that utilizes molten sodium metal as the reactor coolant This value is better than modern Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs), with a typical thermal efficiency of about 34%. This period was set so that taken loans for the plant would be paid off. Severely limited choice of fuel from the point of view of neutron economy when fuel used is uranium. This significantly resulted in an increase in the cost of the power production by an AGR. To date, most fast neutron reactors have been liquid metal cooled fast reactors (LMFRs). In most LWRs a typical refueling cycle removes approximately one-third of the fuel assemblies. Not only one of the cheapest available metals (DuPont reactor grade Niapure is approximately $1.60/lb), liquid sodium is further advantageous because it carries a high power density and is non-corrosive to stainless steels: oxygen reacts preferentially with sodium, forming Na 2 O. Nuclear Plant Outage of Fermi Unit 1. [17], Most of these were experimental plants that are no longer operational. The exploded Chernobyls No.4 reactor was a second-generation reactor. Sodium-cooled fast-neutron-spectrum liquid-metal reactors (LMRs) received much attention during the 1960s and 70s when it appeared that their breeding capabilities would soon be needed to supply fissile material to a rapidly expanding nuclear industry. large-scale nuclear challenges. This was the case at the Monju Nuclear Power Plant in a 1995 accident. A principal operational motivation for working on this technology is enhanced energy conversion efficiency provided by a higher reactor operating temperature. Sodium has only one stable isotope, sodium-23, which is a weak neutron absorber. Aside from the Russian experience, Japan, India, China, France and the USA are investing in the technology. %PDF-1.6 % It suffered a partial nuclear meltdown in 1963 and was decommissioned in 1975. The melting point can be lowered by alloying the lead with bismuth, but lead-bismuth eutectic is highly corrosive to most metals[4][5] used for structural materials. Leak proof heat exchanger must be used, which increases extra cost. The fuel is enriched uranium dioxide pellets, to 2.5-3.5%, in stainless steel tubes. Fermi 1 in Monroe County, Michigan was an experimental, liquid sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor that operated from 1963 to 1972. Utilities schedule maintenance and reload during the spring and fall, when electricity demand is lowest and the electrical grid usually has reserve capacity. [19], Actinides and fission products by half-life, Plus radium (element 88). The advanced gas cooled reactors were designed to provide high thermal efficiencies (defined as the ratio of electricity generated to the heat generated) of about 41%. Most of the worlds existing reactors are power reactors, providing the heat needed to turn turbines that run electric-power generators. Additionally, the high temperature of the liquid metal can be used to drive power conversion cycles with high thermodynamic efficiency. On the other hand, even though the internals of the PWR are simpler, a BWR power plant is smaller, because it has no steam generators. [1] Others are in planning or under construction. Michigan Enrico Fermi Atomic Power Plant, which experienced a sodium Unlike some nuclear reactors that utilize thermal Early SFRs, constructed before the establishment of the GIF, have also The sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) uses liquid metal (sodium) as a coolant instead of water that is typically used in U.S. commercial power plants. From the safety perspective, gas cooled reactors usually employ lower core power density and higher heat capacity core, supporting the limited fuel temperatures after a loss-of-coolant accident. [3] 2. Also, a second life extension of up to 80 years may be economical in some cases. A coolant of carbon dioxide absorbs and transports heat to a steam generator, where the heat is conducted to the secondary loop and ultimately to a traditional steam-turbine cycle. properties of the molten metal coolant. Production of superheated steam and excellent heat removal. Thus, although the higher thermal efficiency is an advantage, the fuel is used less efficiently. In the German system, the helium passes through interstices in the bed of the spherical fuel elements, whereas in the American system, it passes through holes in the graphite prisms that align along the axis of the core region in the reactor vessel. Lead has excellent neutron properties (reflection, low absorption) and is a very potent radiation shield against gamma rays. The purpose of shifting fuel at the time of reload is to achieve an optimal reactivity and power distribution for the next cycle of operation. University, Winter 2018. generate steam. The primary advantage of liquid metal coolants, such as liquid sodium, is that metal atoms are weak neutron moderators. Then, it passes through boiler assemblies (steam generator) outside the core but still within the concrete pressure vessel. Low vapor pressure enables operation at near-ambient pressure, dramatically reducing the probability of an accident. In development. Beside its highly corrosive character,[4][5] its main disadvantage is the formation by neutron activation of 209Bi (and subsequent beta decay) of 210Po (T'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-0000000D-QINU`"'12 = 138.38 day), a volatile alpha-emitter highly radiotoxic (the highest known radiotoxicity, above that of plutonium).
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